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Calculating NSF Water Quality Index (WQI)

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Water quality index is a 100-point scale that summarizes results from a total of nine different measurements when complete:

Using the book Field Manual for Water Quality Monitoring, the National Sanitation Foundation surveyed 142 people representing a wide range of positions at the local, state, and national level about 35 water quality tests for possible inclusion in an index. Nine factors were chosen and some were judged more important than others, so a weighted mean is used to combine the values.

So that field measurements could be converted to index values, respondents were asked by questionnaire to graph the level of water quality (0 through 100) corresponding to the field measurements (e.g., pH 2-12). The curves were then averaged and are thought to represent the best professional judgment.  The updated calculator allows you to enter the latitude and longitude for the site or pick this location from the Google Earth Map.  The calculator completes the individual and group calculation and permits you to generate a customized report.  (Please like and share this resource !)

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Boil Water Advisories - Surface Water Treatment Rule - GWUDI
 

Chlorine is the primary disinfectant used in the United States. In order to be effective, the chlorine must be given time to react with the microorganisms.

The time required depends on the temperature and the pH of the water. Chlorine works best in water with a low pH and a high temperature. The concentration and contact time required to inactivate Giardia using chlorine is approximated by the following formula.
 

CT=.2828 * ( pH^2.69 ) * ( Cl^.15 ) * (.933^(T-5)) * L
 

•  
• CT = Product of Free Chlorine Residual and Time required
• pH = pH of water
• Cl = Free Chlorine residual, mg/l
• T = Temperature, degrees C
• L = Log Removal
•  

The PDFs below use this formula to solve for any desired parameter.
- CT Made Simple
- CT Lookup Table

Viruses

The CT concept was developed specifically for surfacewater, with the assumption that water suppliers would be trying to inactivate both Giardia and viruses. Since the CT required to provide 3 log inactivation of Giardia is at least enough to provide the required 4 log inactivation of viruses, the EPA just set the standard for Giardia and ignored viruses.

If a well tests positive for e. coli bacteria, it is very likely that it will test positive for viruses as well.  It seems reasonable, therefore, that the disinfection of a well that tests positive for coliform bacteria should be effective in inactivating viruses.

Just in case the Applet is not working - Here is a summary table with some inactivation and CT data as a function of pH, chlorine concentration, and log inactivations.
 

Water pH 6.0 at 0.5 C

Water pH 7.0 at 0.5 C

Water pH 8.0 at 0.5 C

The next question is how do know how much contact time you are providing? 

Unfortunately, it is not as easy as dividing the storage volume by the flow rate. In order to count at all, there must be a separate inlet and outlet to the tank, widely separated. Even with this provided, the volume would then be discounted by one of the following baffling factors.

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Note: (This formula was provided by Peter Martin, an associate Engineer with the Contra Costa Water District, and was published in the AWWA Journal AWWA 85:12:12 Dec 1993).The applet above uses this formula to solve for any desired parameter. The applet may not be conservative for high pH, high chlorine residuals, and high temperatues.

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Surface Water Filtration and Groundwater Under the Influence Investigations

The occurrence and detection of this parasite and drinking water source identification and protection has become a matter of urgent concern to those responsible for water utility operation in endemic areas.   Because of these concerns the Surface Water Filtration Rule was established and protocols were developed for determining if a source was characterized as surface water, groundwater, or groundwater under the influence of source water. As part of the Surface Water Filtration Rule all community water supplies identified as surface water require a minimum of filtration rather than just disinfection prior to consumption. The Surface Water Filtration Rule has lead to the development of a protocol to evaluate the performance of filtration plants. The protocol is similar to the method used for the Groundwater Under the Influence Investigations, except the risk rankings and interpretations are based on a combination of the system configuration, source water quality, degree of particle reduction, and distribution of particles.

Since as the Director for the Center for Environmental Quality has conducted research in pilot filtration plant performance and optimization, the laboratory has been involved in the evaluation of a number of bench-scale, pilot, and full-scale filtration plants in Pennsylvania, New York, and New Jersey.   The laboratory Director has worked on projects using diatomaceous earth filtration, slow sand filtration, direct filtration, submicron filters, cartridge filters and upflow filtration systems.   In addition, we have conducted bench scale and pilot scale experiments to assist in optimization of pretreatment process and filtration of water supplies and has developed protocols and conducting testing to assist in the development of solid flux loadings for secondary clarifiers for a wastewater applications and living filtration systems for on-site wastewater disposal systems.
 

Microscopic Evaluation Technique for Filtration Plant Performance
 

The purpose of this procedure is to evaluate the performance of public water supply filtration systems. A minimum of 300 gallons of both raw and finished water should be collected. The evaluation is based on the filtration plants ability to remove Giardia sized and larger particles. In addition to the MET evaluation, the evaluator should also consider the operational conditions of the plant, physical condition of the plant/ raw water, and effluent quality of the finished water.

Each analysis culminates in a filtration performance rating which reflects the overall effluent quality. The rating is always accompanied by an explanation which details the justification of the assessment. Filtration Plants with Excellent and Good ratings are reported as "Acceptable Filtration Performance". Filter which are rated Questionable or Poor are reported as "Unacceptable Filtration Performance".

The amounts of each of several specific groups of particulate matter and microorganisms are recorded. These groups include: small particulate debris, large particulate debris, cellular plant debris, diatoms, and other algae, protozoa, insects and crustaceans, nematodes, and rotifers. Also, pollen grains, Giardia, and other parasitic protozoa should be noted.
 

No of Specific Particles in a Category
Avg. Field at 100x

Excellent- These systems remove essentially all of the Giardia sized debris and that which is much smaller. There is no evidence of turbidity breakthrough to indicate any risk for Giardia contamination of the effluent and 300 gallons of effluent can be observed in a single sample without any Giardia sized particles reaching the rare level (+).

Good-300 gallons of effluent can be observed in a single subsample without significant amounts of Giardia sized particles present, i.e., the levels of diatoms, algae, and protozoa remain a the few (++) level.

Questionable-Giardia sized particles are at the moderate (+++) level in samples which represent 300 gallons of effluent. These systems have filtration which does not provide the obvious assurance for Giardia removal as in the above two ratings. It is not possible to comfortably predict the potential for Giardia breakthrough with this result.  Facility evaluations rely heavily on information obtained in the operations survey.

Poor-These systems are unable to remove Giardia sized particles and are therefore vulnerable for Giardia passage through the facility. Subsamples represent 300 gallons of effluent, and Giardia sized debris is in the moderated (+++) to many (++++) range. Operational changes are required to improve the effluent quality. The facility must be reevaluated to determine whether correction of the problem was achieved. Corrections must be performed within a reasonable time period and public notified if the potential for Giardia contamination remains.
 

Advanced Stormwater Design

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Chlorination of Drinking Water
Private Well Owner and Small System Operator Guide


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DIY - Bacterial Screening Test
 

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Water used for drinking and cooking should be free of pathogenic (disease causing) microorganisms that cause such illnesses as typhoid fever, dysentery, cholera, and gastroenteritis.

Whether a person contracts these diseases from water depends on the type of pathogen, the number of organisms in the water (density), the strength of the organism (virulence), the volume of water ingested, and the susceptibility of the individual. Purification of drinking water containing pathogenic microorganisms requires specific treatment called disinfection.

Although several methods eliminate disease-causing microorganisms in water, chlorination is the most commonly used. Chlorination is effective against many pathogenic bacteria, but at normal dosage rates it does not kill all viruses, cysts, or worms. When combined with filtration, chlorination is an excellent way to disinfect drinking water supplies.

This fact sheet discusses the requirements of a disinfection system, how to test the biological quality of drinking water, how to calculate the amount of chlorine needed in a particular situation, chlorination equipment, by-products of disinfection, and alternative disinfection methods.   A new pathogen screening test is Now Available.

Disinfection requirements

Disinfection reduces pathogenic microorganisms in the water to levels designated safe by public health standards. This prevents the transmission of disease.

An effective disinfection system kills or neutralizes all pathogens in the water. It is automatic, simply maintained, safe, and inexpensive. An ideal system treats all the water and provides residual (long term) disinfection. Chemicals should be easily stored and not make the water unpalatable.  State and federal governments require public water supplies to be biologically safe.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recently proposed expanded regulations to increase the protection provided by public water systems. Water supply operators will be directed to disinfect and, if necessary, filter the water to prevent contamination from Giardia lamblia, coliform bacteria, viruses, heterotrophic bacteria, turbidity, and Legionella.

Private systems, while not federally regulated, also are vulnerable to biological contamination from sewage, improper well construction, and poor-quality water sources. Since more than 30 million people in the United States rely on private wells for drinking water, maintaining biologically safe water is a major concern.

Testing water for biological quality

The biological quality of drinking water is determined by tests for coliform group bacteria. These organisms are found in the intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals and in the soil. Their presence in water indicates pathogenic contamination, but they are not considered to be pathogens. The standard for coliform bacteria in drinking water is "less than 1 coliform colony per 100 milliliters of sample" (< 1/ 100ml).

Public water systems are required to test regularly for coliform bacteria. Private system testing is done at the owner's discretion. Drinking water from a private system should be tested for biological quality at least once each year, usually in the spring. Testing is also recommended following repair or improvements in the well.

Coliform presence in a water sample does not necessarily mean that the water is hazardous to drink. The test is a screening technique, and a positive result (more than 1 colony per 100 ml water sample) means the water should be retested. The retested sample should be analyzed for fecal coliform organisms. A high positive test result, however, indicates substantial contamination requiring prompt action. Such water should not be consumed until the source of contamination is determined and the water purified.

A  testing laboratory provides specific sampling instructions and containers. The sampling protocol includes the following:

run cold water for a few minutes (15 minutes) to clear the lines;

use sterile sample container and handle only the outside of container and cap; and

upon collecting the sample, immediately cap bottle and place in a chilled container if delivery to lab exceeds 1 hour (never exceed 30 hours). Many laboratories do not accept samples on Friday due to time limits.

Chlorine treatment

Chlorine readily combines with chemicals dissolved in water, microorganisms, small animals, plant material, tastes, odors, and colors. These components "use up" chlorine and comprise the chlorine demand of the treatment system. It is important to add sufficient chlorine to the water to meet the chlorine demand and provide residual disinfection.

The chlorine that does not combine with other components in the water is free (residual) chlorine, and the breakpoint is the point at which free chlorine is available for continuous disinfection. An ideal system supplies free chlorine at a concentration of 0.3-0.5 mg/l. Simple test kits, most commonly the DPD colorimetric test kit (so called because diethyl phenylene diamine produces the color reaction), are available for testing breakpoint and chlorine residual in private systems. The kit must test free chlorine, not total chlorine.  We also recommend monitoring the ORP (Oxidation Reduction Potential) of the water.  Paper - Use of ORP Monitoring for Disinfection  University of California and YSI.

Contact time with microorganisms

The contact (retention) time (Table 1) in chlorination is that period between the introduction of the disinfectant and when the water is used. A long interaction between chlorine and the microorganisms results in an effective disinfection process. The contact time varies with chlorine concentration, the type of pathogens present, pH, and temperature of the water. The calculation procedure is given below.

Contact time must increase under conditions of low water temperature or high pH (alkalinity). Complete mixing of chlorine and water is necessary, and often a holding tank is needed to achieve appropriate contact time. In a private well system, the minimum-size holding tank is determined by multiplying the capacity of the pump by 10. For example, a 5-gallons-per-minute (GPM) pump requires a 50-gallon holding tank. Pressure tanks are not recommended for this purpose since they usually have a combined inlet/outlet and all the water does not pass through the tank.

An alternative to the holding tank is a long length of coiled pipe to increase contact between water and chlorine. Scaling and sediment build-up inside the pipe make this method inferior to the holding tank.
 

Table 1. Calculating Contact Time

minutes required = K / chlorine residual (mg/l)
 

To calculate contact time, one should use the highest pH and lowest water temperature expected. For example, if the highest pH anticipated is 7.5 and the lowest water temperature is 42 °F, the "K" value (from the table below) to use in the formula is 15. Therefore, a chlorine residual of 0.5 mg/l necessitates 30 minutes contact time. A residual of 0.3 mg/l requires 50 minutes contact time for adequate disinfection.

Chlorination levels

If a system does not allow adequate contact time with normal dosages of chlorine, superchlorination followed by dechlorination (chlorine removal) may be necessary.

Superchlorination provides a chlorine residual of 3.0-5.0 mg/l, 10 times the recommended minimum breakpoint chlorine concentration. Retention time for superchlorination is approximately 5 minutes. Activated carbon filtration removes the high chlorine residual.

Shock chlorination is recommended whenever a well is new, repaired, or found to be contaminated. This treatment introduces high levels of chlorine to the water. Unlike superchlorination, shock chlorination is a "one time only" occurrence, and chlorine is depleted as water flows through the system; activated carbon treatment is not required. If bacteriological problems persist following shock chlorination, the system should be evaluated.  More information regarding shock disinfection can be found at Shock Well Disinfection Website. 

CHLORINATION GUIDELINES

Chlorine solutions lose strength while standing or when exposed to air or sunlight. Make fresh solutions frequently to maintain the necessary residual.

Maintain a free chlorine residual of 0.3-0.5 mg/l after a 10-minute contact time. Measure the residual frequently.

Once the chlorine dosage is increased to meet greater demand, do not decrease it.

Locate and eliminate the source of contamination to avoid continuous chlorination. If a water source is available that does not require disinfection, use it.

Keep records of pertinent information concerning the chlorination system and we recommend that you monitor the ORP of the water.

Types of chlorine used in disinfection

Public water systems use chlorine in the gaseous form, which is considered too dangerous and expensive for home use. Private systems use liquid chlorine (sodium hypochlorite) or dry chlorine (calcium hypochlorite). To avoid hardness deposits on equipment, manufacturers recommend using soft, distilled, or demineralized water when making up chlorine solutions.

Equipment for continuous chlorination

Continuous chlorination of a private water supply can be done by various methods. The injection device should operate only when water is being pumped, and the water pump should shut off if the chlorinator fails or if the chlorine supply is depleted. A brief description of common chlorination devices follows.
 

chlorine pump (see Fig. 1):

• commonly used, positive displacement or chemical-feed device,
• adds a small amount, of chlorine to the water,
• dose either fixed or varies with water flow rates
• recommended for low and fluctuating water pressure,
• chlorine drawn into the device then pumped to water delivery line

Figure 1. Pump type (positive displacement) chlorinator

Figure 2. Injector (aspirator) chlorinator
 

---

suction device:

• The line from chlorine supply to the suction side of water pump,
• chlorine drawn into the water held in the well pump,
• dosage uniformity not assured with this system,
• some suction devices inject chlorine directly into well water, increasing the contact time between microorganisms and disinfectant; water/chlorine mixture is then drawn into the well pump

aspirator (see Fig. 2):

• simple, inexpensive mechanism,
• requires no electricity,
• the vacuum created by water flowing through a tube draws chlorine into a tank where it mixes with untreated water,
• treated solution fed into the water system,
• chlorine doses not consistently accurate

solid feed unit:

• waste treatment and swimming pool disinfection,
• requires no electricity,
• controlled by a flow meter,
• the device slowly dissolves chlorine tablets to provide continuous supply of chlorine solution

batch disinfection:

• used for fluctuating chlorine demand,
• three tanks, each holding 2 to 3 days' water supply, alternately filled, treated and used

Disinfection by-products

Trihalomethanes (THMS) are chemicals that are formed, primarily in surface water, when naturally occurring organic materials (humic and fulvic acids from degradation of plant material) combine with free chlorine. Some of the THMs present in drinking water are chloroform, bromoform, and bromodichloromethane. Since groundwater rarely has high levels of humic and fulvic acids, chlorinated private wells contain much lower levels of these chemicals.

THMs are linked to increases in some cancers, but the potential for human exposure to THMs from drinking water varies with season, contact time, water temperature, pH, water chemistry and disinfection method. Although there is a risk from consuming THMs in chlorinated drinking water, the health hazards of undisinfected water are much greater. The primary standard (maximum contaminant level) for total THMs in drinking water is 0.10 mg/l, and activated carbon filtration removes THMs from water.   Our comprehensive water quality test kit for City Water or Well Water.

Important tools, Chlorine Monitoring and ORP Monitoring.
 

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